Research Methods

In the Helping Professions

Research

n    Definition:

n    Re – intensive prefix.

n    Cererche (1500s); “to seek out or seek for.”

n    Research; “Act of searching closely.”

Research Article

n    Is a written account of the research conducted in an attempt to gain insight and knowledge of specific phenomenon.

Elements of a Research Article

n    Introduction:

n    Statement of purpose

n    Thesis statement (Why?)

n   Identify the problem/issue to be reviewed?

n   Why is issue significant?

n   How is it related to current body knowledge?

n   What is it’s social significance?

Elements of a Research Article

n    Literature Review:

n    What literature exists related to or in support of the issue under study?

n    What is the significance of the issue as reported in the literature?

n    What is the empirical evidence related to the issue?

n    What questions are answered?

n    What questions remain?

Elements of a Research Article

n     Hypothesis: Statement of expected results.

n    Should be the logical conclusion or result of literature review and empirical evidence.

n    Propose a test of an unanswered question related the issue under study.

n    Should be stated in operational terms that are observable, quantifiable, and are measurable with regard to both independent and dependent variables.

n    Should define relevant population(s).

Elements of a Research Article

n     Methods:

n      How is the hypothesis to be tested in terms of operational definitions and mitigation of extraneous variable effects?

n    Identify experimental design?

n    Subject sampling?

n    How, who and from what population?

n    Mitigation of potential homogeneity?

n    Experimental controls/

n    Measurement, manipulation and administration of IV

n    Observation of DV

Elements of a Research Article

n     Results:

n      What were the quantified results?

n      How were the obtained results quantified?

n      What test(s) of significance were employed

n      Are they appropriate to the experimental design?

n      What critical levels of significance used?

n      Were the results significant?

Elements of a Research Article

n    Discussion:

n    How were the results obtained?

n    Do they support the stated hypothesis?

n    What extraneous effects could have influenced the results?

n    What could/should be done differently?

Elements of a Research Article

n    Conclusion:

n    What is the significance of the obtained results in terms of the population sampled and the overall body knowledge?

n    What questions remain?

n    What research should be conducted in the future?

What is Science?

n    “Knowledge acquired by study”

n    Latin scientia: “to know”, “to separate or distinguish”

n    Greek episteme: “difference form theoretical truth and effecting practical results”

What is Science?

n    Present Definition: “Body of regular or methodical observations or propositions concerning a subject or speculation”

n    Method:

n     Latin methodus; “way of teaching or going”

n    Greek methodus; “pursuit, following after”

Scientific Method:

n    Scientific:

n    Aristotle epistemonikos: “making knowledge”

n    Scientific method: “making of knowledge through a method inquiry or “pursuit.”

Scientific Method:

n    Obtaining knowledge of a given phenomenon;

n    Attempting to make cause and effect inferences,

n    Through the empirical observations of operationally defined elements of the phenomenon,

n    Within a prescribed method of control.

Scientific Method:

n      Phenomenon:

n    Greek phainomenon; “that which appears.”

n      Empirical:

n    Greek empeiria;  “that which is experienced.”

n      Operational definition,

n    “Means of making empirical observations through quantifiable measurement.”

n      Experiment;

n    “To engage in experience.”

Limitations of the Scientific Method

n    Empirical “facts” are laden with theoretical assumptions.

n    Assumptions rooted in history developmental agenda of theory

n    Theory: Greek theoria; “the contemplation or speculation of things looked at.”

Limitations of the Scientific Method

n    Theories consist of ideas, both “explicit” and “implicit.”

n    Explicit; that which is overtly stated.

n    Implicit; that which is assumed.

n    Learning derived from;

n    Experience,

n    Related to the “concrete” experience of the external world.

Limitations of the Scientific Method

n    Empirical observations:

n    Data used to quantify experience.

n    To quantify is to make a measurement.

n    Assignment of numerical values based on a set of “rules.”

n    Rules are rooted in Theoretical Assumptions.

Limitations of the Scientific Method

n    Question of “Objective” Empirical Observation

n    Emmanual Kaunt’s “Noumenal World”

n   There is no objective experience only subjective.

n    An assumption of the Scientific Method;

n    That of determinism

n    Essence of “causal” relationships

Limitations of the Scientific Method

n    Cause and Effect relationships;

n    Presupposes a temporal relationship.

n    That cause is antecedent to effect.

n    Constitute a sequential relationship.

n    Cause and Effect precludes;

n    Simultaneous phenomenon

n    Synchronous relationships.

Limitations of the Scientific Method

n    Cause and Effect also precludes;

n    Spontaneity and creativity.

n    Intention; the purposeful behavior as opposed to reaction to causality.

n    Freewill; People can exercise choice and are therefore can be independent of causal determinism.

Limitations of the Scientific Method

n    Another assumption of the Scientific Method is that of “Reductionism.”

n    Science is “Parsimonious;”

n   Phenomena is explained in simplest terms,

n   (ie. Reduced to simplest terms)

Limitations of the Scientific Method

n    Material Reductionism;

n    Material or environment pressure elicits causal response

n    Mechanical Reductionism;

n    Organisms respond to change (cause) via physics and biological mechanisms.

n    Are wholly predictable.

n    (ie. Skinner’s black box)

Limitations of the Scientific Method

n    Temporal Reductionism;

n    Cause and effect are temporal and sequential by nature.

n    Reductionism defines human experience in terms of environmental stressors which elicit psychological and behavioral responses.

Limitations of the Scientific Method

n    Reductionism precludes:

n    Freewill

n    Intention

n    Meaning

n    Purpose

n    Creative Thought

Limitations of the Scientific Method

n     Reductionism fails to account for contextual experience.

n    Responses occur in context of an interaction with the environment as opposed to merely a reaction.

n    People respond in terms of perceptions of environmental circumstance which are based, in part, on creative interpretations.

n    Freewill, intention, purpose and choice.

Statistics Anxiety

n    Statistics Anxiety: An anxiety which occurs as a result of encountering statistics in any form and at any level” and which “appears to involve a complex array of emotional reactions which have the propensity to debilitate learning.”

                    -Onwuegbuzie and Daley (1999)

Symptoms of Math Anxiety

n    Fennema and Sherman(1976) summarize that math and statistics anxiety involve similar feelings of “dread, nervousness, and associated bodily symptoms related to doing mathematics.”

PSYCHOLOGY IS A SCIENCE

n      Hypotheses are derived from Theories

n      Data is collected to test the validity of hypotheses

n      Manipulations are made with regard to stimuli and circumstances in order to observe changes in subject behavior

n      The observed behaviors are quantified

n      The observed changes in behavior are tested to determine significance of the obtained results

n      Results are generalized to populations to determine meaningful significance. 

The Scientific Method

n     Empirical with systematic controlled observation

n     Independent variables controlled and manipulated to effect change in the dependent variable

n     Dependent variables assess effects of independent variables

n     Scientific reporting is unbiased and objective

n     A hypothesis is skeptical, not circular

n     True scientists adopts skeptical attitude

Bi-variate relationship?

n     Causal relationships are determined when an independent variable is  demonstrated to elicit a significant quantifiable change in the dependent variable under controlled conditions. A change in the dependent variable is then predictable in relation to the independent variable.

What is the problem with human behavior?

n    Within subject variability among trails results because people do not repeat a given response precisely.

n    Within subject group variability results from individual differences.

n    Between group variability in part also results from individual differences.

n    People vary in environmental experience and perception.

Solving for Variability

n    Appropriate statistical analysis.

n    Appropriate experimental design controls for individual variability.

n    Identify extraneous effects select appropriate controls that account for them.

Variables

n   Independent Variable

n   Dependent Variable

n   Control Variables

n   Confounding Variables

n   Extraneous Variables

Independent Variable (IV)

n    Variable that is controlled or manipulated in order to determine the effect on behavior

n    Can be different levels of IV

n    Independent variable is independent of subject response

Individual Differences

n    A characteristic or trait that varies consistently across individuals:

n   ie; “How does depression affect perception?”

Dependent Variable

n    The behavior chosen to be measured in response to the manipulation of the independent variable.

n   It is dependent on the subject’s response to the independent variable

n   Measures response in order to assess the effects of the independent variable

Operational Definition?

n     Explains a concept solely in terms of the operations used  to produce or measure it.

n    ie; “Depression defined in terms of the Beck Depression Inventory.”

n    ie; “Anxiety as measured by the MMPI anxiety scale?”

n    Test instruments used to measure or quantify variables should be standardized.

Control Variables

n     Extraneous circumstances that when not controlled could effect the experimental outcome

n     Ideally, all other circumstances other than the independent variable should be controlled or held constant throughout experiment.

n     It is not possible to control all extraneous effects.

n     Has a negative effect on the ability to generalize the results.

n     Confounding Variables

n   Any extraneous effect that changes systematically as the independent variable is manipulated and can therefore impact changes in the dependent variable.

Scientific instruments

n    Should be standardized

n    Should be accurate and an appropriate measure of the variable being studied

n    Should be reliable and consistent

n    Should be a valid measurement of the phenomenon being studied.

n           

Types of Instruments

n     Surveys and Questionnaires

n     Rating scales used by an observer

n    Requires inter-rater reliability

n     Electric measuring devices

n    Reaction time apparatus

n     Psychological assessment tests

n     Physiological and biological assessment devices

n    Polygraph instrument

Testing for Validity –

n    Validity – “the accurateness of the measure and/or experimental design”

n   Internal Validity

n   External Validity

Internal Validity

n    Relates to the internal constructs and design of an experiment being an appropriate measurement of the relationship between the independent and dependent variables, thus allowing the obtained results to be stated as valid.

Internal Validity

n     Internal validity should address the following:

n    Do assessment instruments and measurements accurately represent the phenomenon under study?

n    Are the instruments reliable and consistent across trials?

n    Are appropriate controls employed?

n    Is the experimental design appropriate?

n    Were appropriate sampling techniques employed ?

External Validity

n     Relates to how extensive can the obtained results of a given study be generalized to a population.

n    Was the subject sample representative of the population?

n    Was homogeneity adequately controlled for?

n    Was the internal validity strong enough to make inferences from the obtained results?

Construct Validity

Reliability

n    Measurement of consistency from one administration of a test to another.

n    Across trial consistency

n    Lack of reliability limits the accuracy of pre/post measurements.

n    Also has negative impact on both internal and external validity.

A Hypothesis

n    Is a statement of expected results of the sequential paring of a specified stimulus and a speculated and quantified behavioral response.

n    A testable hypotheses states the stimulus-response as clear operationally defined concepts that are not circular.

n    Stimulus response must be an observable phenomenon.

Goals of the Scientific Method

n    Description

n    Prediction

n    Understanding

Description

n    Refers to the procedures by which events and their relationships are defined, classified, cataloged or categorized

n       DSM IV describes criteria for diagnosis of mental illness

Prediction

n    Description of events and their relationships that provides a basis for prediction

n     Does a stressful life lead to increased physical illness?

 Understanding

n    Most important goal of the scientific    method which is achieved when the causes of a phenomenon are identified.

Understanding is gained when

n    There is measured co-variation

n    There is time-order relationship

n    There is an elimination of plausible alternative  causes demonstrating internal validity

Scientific Theories

n   A logically organized set of propositions that define phenomenon, describe relationships of events within the phenomenon, and explains the occurrence of the events.

The Strength of Theory

n    Theory's internal consistency?

n     Does the theory produce hypotheses that when tested support the theory?

n    Does the theory make precise predictions based on parsimonious explanations of phenomenon. 

Dilemma –

n    We want to build science on precise statements of the relationship between circumstances and behavior

n    There are an infinite number of statements for each set of unique set of circumstances

n    There is also the confounding variable of circumstances that cause unpredictability

SCIENTIFIC INTEGRITY

Psychologists are obligated to conduct research of the highest integrity.

n    Cannot just report data that meets   expectations or proves theory.